XII. Historicity of Muhammad

Historicity of Muhammad

Introduction

Who was Muhammad? Do we have evidence of its existence dating back to his time? What can we say about him or Mecca, based on the historical-critical knowledge, archaeological and refutable? We will treat in this part of the historicity of Muhammad. Taking a historical-critical study and attempt to make a critical analysis of its environment and the character. This analysis will provide a background for further study more advanced on the biography of Muhammad.

1.1 The valley of Mecca, a very special site in the heart of the Arabian Desert.

The valley of Mecca is probably frequented by nomadic and semi-nomadic since time immemorial. The slightest downpour left of drinking water lakes popular with stray from immense desert of Arabia. The relief of the valley is a geophysical evidence of the abundance of water that drew this relief of this holy city on the scale of geological time in a now arid but waterlogged and drappant lakes are at the least downpour. The exrêmes conditions of the Arabian desert were probably that the valley was chosen as the camp site by nomads and semi-nomads for thousands of years for its water resources. The establishment of semi-nomadic tribes in the valley had to be very gradual, the site being periodically deserted or selected as camping spot, so that Mecca has become a sedentary way chosen site habitats with hard relatively late . Still today, the Bedouin culture drove the Arabs out into the desert with tents wool camel regularly, nomadism being characteristic of the Bedouin culture. The Arab historians mention disputes over the occupation of the valley between different tribes and evictions. The Jurhumites are said to have chased the Khuza'ah place in camp site in the fight for water resources. One can easily conceive that the site was chosen as a place to camp intermittently by each other, eventually raising such a confrontation. Popular tradition depicts the founding ancestor, according to Aboriginal beliefs, Ishmael himself up in semi-nomadic hunting in the hunting seasons and returning pitch his tent in the valley outside of hunting seasons and changing the site regularly . [1] This clearly demonstrates what the valley was uninhabited continuous source of these ancestral stories, but probably chosen as a campsite with tents during these conflicts remained alive in popular memory. The site much later become a small permanent camp, then a small village with habitats solidly built and will mention that in ancient times. No doubt, the Black Stone she has among the baetyls revered by Arabs mentioned in Ives BCE by Herodotus, the father of historians. In the second century, Maximus of Tyre mentions that the Arabs followed a cult around a quadrangular stone "Arabs also love, but whatever. As for the object of their adoration sensitive, I've seen is a quadrangular stone. "Ptolemy mentions Macoraba, around the same time, also without mention of idol, which historians regard as one of the first historical evidence of continuous habitation of Mecca. The similarities between the Muslim hajj (a word derived from Haggag meaning festival) with the festival of sukkot and black stone with Bethel show the proximity of worship Meccans with the ancient Semitic practices among proto-Israelites. The Qur'an describes the implementation of Quraysh in Makkah time Qusay and their settlement: "Because of the use of Qoraïche, their usual [for] winter travel [in Yemen] and summer [in Syria]. Let them worship the Lord of this House; who fed them against hunger and reassured fear. "(Qur'an, 106: 1-4) The Qoraïches Muhammad ancestors, are by tradition a descendant of Ishmael Arabized tribe who traveled seasonally from Syria to Yemen. They have settled, according to the Qur'an, in the valley of Mecca, probably when the site began to be inhabited a more sustained, Mecca constituting a key passage shopping caravans, a boon for those traders they were. Tradition Khuza'ah their negotiations with the management of sources.

Before the Saudi power will make piping work in the valley, each rain the valley was inundated with water. A boon for time immemorial where nomadic and semi-nomadic camp and there were to erect tents.

Even now, Arabs regularly out of the cities to deserts children of the desert, raising tents camel wool. No doubt, frequently, the valley was to be the place of similar camps for its drinking water resources for thousands of years, before becoming a site inhabited continuously and become a village, and then a small noticeable town, maybe from IISS, which will finally be mentioned by travelers in the archives of history.

1.2 Bacca valley, Psalms and Mecca.

(Qur'an, 3:96): "The first house that was built for people, it is that of Bacca (Mecca) blessed and a guidance for the worlds."

A pilgrimage to a sacred valley of Bacca's name is mentioned in the Bible. [2] The term bacca means "tears" or "cry". Suggesting the water resources of the valley. This psalm is perhaps the earliest mention of Mecca, that would make up the memory of pilgrimages in that place until the IX BCE. The mention of tents (habitats Arab desert) reinforces the idea of a cultural resemblance link between the festival of sukkot and ancestral worship of hajj. Paul is not there is the Sinai in Arabia? [3] Have wandering The Israelites could pass through the valley, not regularly inhabited, but simply chosen as a place of pilgrimage for its water resources, so that the son of Korah mentioned in this psalm in the valley Bacca of one of the altars of Elohim?

(Psalms, 84): "In choregos. On gittern. Benei of Korah. Chant. They are cherished, your dwelling place, Adonai Sebaot! My being longs and even faints for the courts of Adonai. My heart and my flesh rejoice with Él, the Living. Even the bird finds a house sparrow nests, where he places his chicks. Your altars, Sebaot Adonai, my king, Elohai! In walking, the inhabitants of your house, they louangeront you again. Selah. Walking in, the human energy is in you, pathways in the heart (this shows that this is a pilgrimage). Passers (= nomads) in the Bacca valley, there arouse a source; ponds as the downpour drapes. They will fill embankment, appear before the Elohim instead of the sanctuary. Adonai Elohim Sebaot, hear my prayer! Listen, Elohim of Ia'acob! Selah. Our shield, see, Elohim! Look at the faces of your Messiah! Yes, what good, one day in your courts, more than a thousand! I chose to be on the threshold of the house of my Elohim, rather than haunt the tents of the crime. Yes, sun shield, Adonai Elohim! Adonai give grace and glory. It does not prohibit the property for walkers integrity (= pilgrims). Adonai Sebaot, running, man sure of yourself! "

During the pilgrimage to Mecca, pilgrims play and wash with water from the Zamzam well, giving thanks to the Lord of the site by the water libation. This ritual should be perpetuated since time immemorial by wandering the desert. One can imagine the deep joy and wonder of nomads to find such a water source or water lakes in the heart of the Arabian Desert.

It may be noted that the psalm refers to may altars and court mentions pilgrimages and evokes the sources and the feature to Drapper lakes at the slightest downpour of Bacca valley. Exegetes see in this passage from Psalm 84, a reference to a far closer to Jerusalem Valley, however, this interpretation is speculative and without verifiable basis. It follows from several psalms son of Korah evoke the entrance to Jerusalem, the exegetes are also equate this psalm 84 in question, so that the passage in this Bacca valley is considered linked to the pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Now the pilgrimage to Jerusalem is independent of the pilgrimage to the valley where it is located, as the pilgrimage to Jerusalem does not require passing through a valley particulilère. Psalm 84 mentions in reality many altars, including one in the mysterious Bacca valley, described as having drappant sources and lakes at the slightest downpour. Psalm suggests astonishment of Korah son of finding an altar of the Lord so far into the wilderness: "Even the bird finds a house sparrow nests, where he places his chicks. Your altars, Sebaot Adonai, my king, Elohai! "The water resources of the site in the heart of the desert are outlined extensively in this song. The places of pilgrimage of the ancient Israelites were indeed many and varied. There is therefore no indication in the Psalm that the pilgrimage in this valley is linked to the pilgrimage to Jerusalem. It states that the wandering Israelites went there before their triumphant return to Zion. The circumambulations goshawks sukkot, water libation and offerings are all related to the pilgrimage rites at the ancient festival of sukkot presenting resemblances with the rites of the Arab-Islamic hajj, and confirming the anthropological connection between the hajj Quraysh and the feast of Sukkot.

Tradition says that during the restoration of the Ka'ba by Qoraïches, an inscription in Syriac was discovered in a corner of the foundation that they were unable to read. A Jew would have translated the inscription reads: "I am Allah, the Lord of Bacca I created the day I created heaven and earth and formed the sun and the moon, and I piles surrounded by seven angels. They stand as both mountains will stand, bless his people with milk and water ". [4] This inscription testifies that the name of the site was known as Bacca long time. The Qur'an also called Mecca "Bacca" (Qur'an, 3:96). Which reinforces the thesis arguing that the valley of Mecca is the Bacca valley of Psalm 84 of the son of Korah. In any case, the name of a valley in the heart of the desert, with an altar of God, and taken as a place of pilgrimage, called Bacca, including sources and drappant lakes during precipitation corresponds perfectly to description of Mecca, and no other known valley of the name is there with such fidelity.

1.3 The Black Stone, the ka'ba, Bethel and the pilgrimage rites.

According to tradition it would be Abraham, the patriarch lédendaire, assisted by his son Ishmael built the allegedly ka'ba. The type of construction of the ka'ba evokes Hittite type of buildings, massive stone walls, irregular corners on the sand floor. Now it seems likely that the Black Stone was the Bethel himself until the arrival of Qoraïche to Mecca, without doubt, taken as a place of pilgrimage. Nothing in the Koran suggests that ka'ba was built by Abraham, given that the term Bethel (Baytullah, al-Bayt) may designate the Black Stone itself, a concept lost over time since the advent of Islam. The belief that ka'ba would be a construction dating back to Abraham is therefore a relatively recent historical mistake, after the writing of the Qur'an. When the Qur'an speaks House (al-Bayt), nothing indicates that a reference to the Ka'ba, the term can designate the Black Stone ...

"Jacob went out from Beer Shava and walked toward Haran. He arrived in a place where he established his house, because the sun had set. He took one of the stones of the place, made ​​his bed and spent the night in that place. And he dreamed as follows: A ladder set up on the earth, its top reaching to heaven and divine messengers up and down along this scale. Then the LORD appeared at the top and said, "I am the Lord, the God of your father Abraham and Isaac; the land on which you lie, I give it to thee and to thy seed, it will be. , thy seed as the dust of the land, and you déborderas the west and the east, north and south, and all families of the earth be happy by you and by your offspring Yes, I am with you. I watch over your every step and will bring you in this country, because I will not leave you until you have done what I promised. " Jacob, having woken up, exclaimed: "Surely the Lord is in this place and I did not know." And, seized with fear, he added: "What dreadful is this place! This is none other than the house of God and this is the gate of heaven!". Jacob rose up early in the morning, took the stone he had put under his head, set it up as monument and poured oil its made. He called that place Bethel; but Luz was the first name of the city. Jacob made ​​a vow, saying, "If the Lord is with me, protect me in the path where I walk, and will give me bread to eat and clothing to cover me if I return in peace father's house, then the Lord has been a God for me and this stone that I have to erect monument will become the Lord's house and all property that you grant me, I want to offer you a tenth. " "(Genesis 28: 10-22)

It appears that Bethel (al-Bayt) described as built by Abraham in the Qur'an originally designated the black Perre, or his revered location for its resources: water, sacred stone probably raised on a foundation of stone or earth, Abraham is described as erecting, and thus purifying the oil spreading it in order to sanctify the like Bethel Jacob Beer Shava. It is at least plausible that this is how Muhammad conceived in his time .

"Remember that we assigned to Abraham the site of the holy place, saying: Do we associate no other God in your worship; Bethel purifies it for those who come there to devotional towers, which acquit them works of piety standing, kneeling or prostrate. Announces to the people the pilgrimage to holy habitation, they arrive there on foot or mounted on camels quick in the race, coming from distant lands. So that they themselves witnessed the benefits they will collect it, and so they repeat the name of God on fixed days, God gave them livestock for their food. Nourish yourself therefore, and give to the needy, the poor. "(Qur'an, 22: 27-29)

"And (remember) when We made ​​the House (at Mecca), a refuge and a sanctuary for the people, saying, 'Adopt as a place of prayer the place where Abraham stood himself (to pray)." We ordered and Abraham and Ishmael: 'Purify My Bethel for those that circulate around and those who meditate there, therein bow and prostrate them (in prayer). "(Qur'an, 2: 125)

Above a sketch of the black stone in the state where the pieces were arranged and cemented into a single block, sketches made by a witness in the Middle Ages. Apparently, Bethel was originally the Black Stone itself, whose foundations had to be a tumulus in rehabilitation of the land site or a stone foundation on which was to be placed the Black Stone, so to keep it above Level the sand in case of storms. The ka'ba in this case being a newer building to protect the Black Stone.

"And when Abraham and Ishmael were raising the foundations Bethel:" Our Lord, accept this from us because it is You the Hearing, the Knowing!.

"(Qur'an, 2: 127) The similarities between the two stories , Bethel Jacob and Pierre-black site, are obvious. It should be noted that the original size of the black Perre was much larger than the current according to the Arab historians, it is described as imposing and making 140 centimeters by 122 centimeters. Historical accounts describe a unique quadrangular stone to the IISS. The Black Stone has suffered many vicissitudes (theft, fire, flood). Currently it remains only a single fragment embedded in one corner of the ka'ba. According to medieval historians, the lifetime of Muhammad, the Black Stone was placed inside the ka'ba sure to be made ​​inaccessible to pilgrims. Bukhari that the Prophet had planned to level the door the ka'ba and open a second door in front of the existing one to get all the pilgrims near the Black Stone. It seems clear that for Muhammad, the ka'ba is a construction of Quraysh, having altered the original structure of the site, during their restoration time of the Prophet. According to Bukhari, Aycha reported that Muhammad said: "Do ? you know that when your people (Qoraïche) built the Kaaba, they reduced its original foundation laid by Abraham, "I said," O Allah's Apostle Why do not you rebuild it on its original foundations laid by! ? Abraham "He replied," If it were not for the fact that your people are close to the pre-Islamic period of ignorance (ie they have recently become Muslims) I would have done. "The sub-narrator, Abdullah (bin Umar) said: 'Aisha must have heard this from Allah Ap & be in my opinion Allah's Apostle had not put his hand on the two opposite corners the Ka'ba Al-Hijr only because the Ka'ba was not rebuilt on its origins foundations laid by Abraham. '' [5]

1.4 The introduction of idols in Mecca according archeology.

According to Thomas Maria Webber, the idols of Mecca were imported from Jordan in the time of Amr ibn Luhay, adopting the gods of all the tribes of the peninsula was to strengthen the status of Mecca. According to the archaeologist in the region described by al-Azraqî [6] there are several hot springs matching the description of ancient writings. Weber points out that historians describe Amr disease that goes Bilqa for treatment, and wrote about his request about the function of anthropomorphic statues worshiped in the Hellenized region: "The seemingly naïve question posed Amr those who went to the source of perplexing researchers leave today to the idea that anthropomirstes representations of gods, kings and ancestors would have been known since ancient times much in the southeast part of the Arabian Sheik of Khuza'a. Some elements still speak in favor of the narrative of al-Kalbi: attributed to 'Amr ibn Luhay import many other representations of gods, from the north to the Hijaz. In all, 360 idols were worshiped at the shrine of Mecca before the triumph of Islam and their destruction by the Prophet. And Saleh al Hamarneh suggested, the large number and diversity of Arab gods can be held to the differing socioeconomic interests between tribal groups; these, divided on political and religiously tried to seal specific alliances through joint worship. The main tribal deities were al-'Uzza, Allat and Manat, the three goddesses and the god of good weather and bad weather, particularly venerated at Dumat al-Djandal (al-Djawf) Wadd. In Mecca, there were also the father of the gods, Hubal, depicted as a great idol. (...) The names of deities mentioned (above) appearing for quite a few centuries in Nabataean inscriptions, east of the Jordan area, we conclude that the cult figures actually come from the North. "[7]

Like other anthropomorphic idols from Mecca pr &'islamique, Lat, Manat and Uzza came from Jordan. Above their equivalents represented in relief in the region mentionée by Arab historians.

1.5 The Year of the Elephant, returns to a narrative between legend and reality.

Arab historians such as Ibn Ishaq and Tabari qu'Abraha reported to have sent a troop of soldiers in Saudi year of the birth of Muhammad, accompanied by an elephant. The army is said to have been routed and put ravaged by a volley of birds ... But if such an expedition is historically plausible, it seems that the band has been reached by smallpox. Verbatim, the Koran does not say that the gang was routed by birds. They are eyewitnesses who reported seeing birds with heads of vultures throw rocks at the soldiers routed transpersaient and were told that these stones out of their thighs that lead to such an interpretation. Here we will deal with this legend of a historical-critical perspective. (Qur'an, 105): "Have you seen how the Lord dealt with the companions of the elephant? Has he thrown into disarray their machinations? Has he not sent against them birds by vollées; their footprints throw stones? He crushed them as the grain eaten by cattle. "Like ibn Ishaq, a former wrote at the time described a smallpox epidemic at the time. Indeed, it seems that the army of Abraha was infected with smallpox in the Hijaz at that time by Procopius. [8] The exact destination and the mission of the company is not mentioned in the Koran nor clearly determined, but historians describe several victories Abraha in northern Arabia. Whatever'Les Arabs have interpreted this expedition as to destroy the Ka'ba, which would compete the construction of a church in Yemen, stained, tradition says, by a Bedouin. It is also possible that the troupe was a confrontation with Persian troops.

Abyssinian soldiers: their shields of hippopotamus skin evoke turtle shells and can explain that perncoptères Vultures them throwing stones were falling or bringing them to the site confirming the témoigage Bedouin recounting seeing birds raptors head throwing stones at the Abyssinian soldiers.

The smallpox virus causes injuries that may have accentuated the belief that they are the stones thrown by vultures -according nomades- of witnesses are said to have decimated the army of Abraha by stoning.

What seems certain is the presence of troops in the Hijaz was suffering from a smallpox epidemic. Now, knowing this, the story of the Koran is actually any obvious if we willfully neglects subsequent popular exaggerations. Indeed, extreme desert conditions are that the area is permanently furrowed by vultures and raptors in quest weakened prey and carcaces. It is only natural that if the Abyssinian troops was infected with smallpox, the vultures are scrambling to feed their remains being protected from disease as carnivorous animals with a stomach acid test of all. This is very simply inevitable, such a physical law, in the unforgiving conditions of the desert. Leather shields of hippopotamus resemblant strong a turtle shell [a] puts much appreciated by the Vultures perncoptères, it also seems more than plausible that perncoptères Vultures have thrown stones at these shields used by soldiers and taken to stones to the site believer observe many turtles, seeing the shields of Abyssinian soldiers who were trying to protect small raptors still making up to 120 centimeters large and hungry, or to keep out the sun, as it is reported by Arab witnesses who attended this impressive scene of which an uncle of Muhammad. The perncoptères Vultures can sometimes form a group made of tens of people in the place where food is found. Just after Vultures perncoptères is of course the towers of Griffon vultures, which are certainly came devour the natural orifices of the bodies, eyes, mouth and anus, that the less robust beaks Perncoptères probably did not allow them to do. That being interpreted by Arab nomads witnesses who discovered the bodies of Abyssinian soldiers abandoned in the desert, as caused by stones thrown by vultures. Not to mention that the Abyssinian soldiers were hit by smallpox resembler to poor wretches stoned to blows stones thrown by vultures, with eyes and other orifices perforated literally devoured actually. And being surrounded by many stones brought by the Vultures on the site would be born ... So the legend of their destruction by volatile. Since Bedouins had seen vultures throw rocks at the Abyssinian soldiers, and another found the bodies devoured by birds of prey.

Perncoptère vultures. These vultures roam the Hijaz region and could throw stones at the Abyssinian soldiers weakened by smallpox protecting themselves by shields resemblant from the sky to turtle shells, a delicacy appreciated by vultures smashing their carcasses with stones.

After Vultures perncoptères, it is the Griffon vultures who complete the work, the natural orifices and soft tissues are devoured. The less robust beaks Perncoptères not allowing them to devour tissue remains. What clearly raises legend piercing head to the crotch of Abraha soldiers by stones thrown by the Vultures perncoptères.

2.1 Historical Sources:

There are written and chronic Muslims we have not the original, here is a partial list of the oldest writings related items on the biography of Muhammad:

1. Urwah ibn Zubayr (? -713).
2. wehb ibn Munabbih (? -725).
3. Ibn Shihab al-Zuhri (? -737).
4. Musa ibn Uqbah (?).
5. ibn Ishaq (704-767).
6. Waqidi (745-822).
7. ibn Sa'd (784-845).
8. Tabari (839-923).
9. ...

2.1.1. The epigraphic Traces:

Lists of epigraphs and graffiti found in Saudi dated from the first century Hijri by regions: 23 (Muthallath), 24 (Qâ' al-Mu'tadil), 27 (W. Khushayba), 40 (W. Shamiyya), 46 (W. Sabeel) 56 (Khashna), 74 (J. Ḥuwayḍ), 78 (Qâ' al-Mu'tadil), 80 (Qâ' Bani Murr), 80 (W. Rimâmiyya), 80 (J. Mu'ayṣim), 80 (W. Asila), 80 ( Sani W.), 82 (J. Ḥuwayḍ), 83 (Abu'Ûd), 83 (Aqra'), 84 (Mecca), 84 (W. Ḥurumân), 91 (W. Wujayriyya), 96 (Ruwâwa), 98 ( Mecca), 98 (W. Ḥurumân). Out of Arabia. 64 (Ḥafnat al-Abyad, Iraq), 85 (Negev, Palestine), 92 (Kharrana, Jordan), 93 (Usays, Syria) According Thesaurus Islamic epigraphy (2009) were graffiti found dated between AD 1 and 100 Hijri: among the 677 written statements, Mohammed is mentioned 64 times (9%), 12 in the first century and 52 in the second. In most graffiti Muhammed is mentioned among Abraham, Moses, Jesus and other prophets .. 2.1.2. The Sana'a Manuscripts: Manuscripts 926 Korans discovered in Sana'a were analyzed in the laboratory, and it was verified that 54 of them dated back to the first century Hijri, the oldest of which may go back to living itself Muhammad. Such as carbon-14 dating of Sotheby's manuscript in 1993, Lot 31 (Stanford '07 palimpsest folio). [11]

Above an example of Qur'anic manuscript graphic commencing as early as the time of the Prophet.

The K26 manuscript dated from the time of Muhammad which is a fragment of the Qur'an thus contains a verse mentioning Muhammad as the Messenger of Allah.

Above, the status of some 30,000 fragments of Korans such as found during the roof collapse of the old mosque in Sana'a.

The apparent absence of any trace of Islamic writings from the time of Muhammad and the IX proved to be an illusion. Indeed, the reform of the Arabic script performed at the IX led to the illegibility of the earlier writings that have been gradually been burned, destroyed and buried or hidden in inaccessible sealed to avoid soiling the unreadable writings that may contain the names Allah or prophets. Such sealed found in Sana'a, Cairo or other places like in Fustat have verified that Islamic accounts did exist from the time of Muhammad until the reform of writing.


2.1 .3. Muhammad's tayayye according to Thomas the presbyopic (around 640):

A priest, Thomas, told The presbyopic around 640 late Syriac aggression committed by the Arabs. A battle has taken place near Gaza, 19 kilometers to the east between the Romans or the Byzantines, and Tayyaye: the Arabs.

The oldest known mention of Muhammad is that of a Christian columnist testifying in Syriac taking Gaza under Umar First.

"In the year 945, indiction 7 (the year 634 of the current calendar), Friday, February 4, there was a battle between the Romans and the Tayyaye of Muhammad in Palestine, 12 miles east of Gaza. The Romans fled, leaving behind the Bryrdn patriarch that Tayyaye killed. Some 4000 poor Palestinian villagers were killed there, Christians, Jews, Samaritans. Tayyaye ravaged the entire region. "[12] It is The oldest known written mention of Muhammad. The tayyaye means Arabs. This is clearly the conquest of Palestine during the reign of Umar ibn al-Khattab. This writing of the time and the Koran manuscripts discovered in Sana'a dating back to the first half of the first century Hijri testify to the historicity of certain Muhammad, and relevance to the compilation of the Qur'an by the political successors of the Prophet in the first half of the first century Hijri. The scarcity of manuscripts can be explained by the destruction of the ancient manuscripts as reforms of Arabic script making them indecipherable earlier manuscripts, which could lead to a proliferation of variants of the Qur'an.

2.1.4. Fragment on the Arab Conquests (post-636):

"In January {the people} Homs took the floor for their lives and many villages were devastated by the murder of {Arabs} Muhammad (Muhmd) and many people were killed and {made} prisoner from Galilee to Beth.... On the wine {GT} six May SAQ {ila} {...} continued this in the neighborhood of Homs and the Romans {. ..}. The tenth {of August} Romans fled the vicinity of Damascus {and there were killed} for {many people}, around ten thousand. And at the end of the {year} you the Romans came. On the twentieth of August of the year nine hundred that {Arante} seven (636 in the current calendar) they are faced here in Gabitha {face a multitude} of the Romans, and many people { R} omains were you {ed} what {c} fifty thousand. "[13]

2.1.5. Doctrina Jacobi Nuper Baptizati (633-640):

"Ioustos took the floor and said: You speak the truth, and that is the great salvation. Believe in Christ for I will confess the whole truth Rabbi Jacob Abraam My brother wrote me a false prophet has appeared among. . Saracens When the candidate was killed by the Saracens (around 633) I was in Caesarea, said Abraam and j`allai boat has Sykamina; they said: The candidate was killed And we, the Jews we were! with great joy. They said that the prophet had appeared, appeared among the Saracens, and he proclaimed the coming of Christ the Messiah was coming. And I Abraam, being Sykamina arrival, I stopped at an old very versed in Scripture and I said: What are you telling me the prophet that appeared with the Saracens? And he replied moaning deeply: It`sa false prophet: they come from armed prophets? Really events of recent times are works of disorders, and I fear that the Christ who came first is the one worshiped by Christians is good from God, while we were preparing to receive Hermolaos (antichrist) is spot. Isaiah said in effect that the Jews have a perverted and hardened heart until the whole earth be devastated. But Abraam will rabbi and information you this prophet that appeared. And I Abraam, who led the investigation, j ' learned Abraam me of those who were with him that there is nothing authentic in the alleged prophet: it is only a question of massacres. He says he holds the keys of Paradise, which is incredible. This is what I wrote my brother of Abraam East. "[14] * It follows from the Jewish narrative, that they were considering the appearance of a prophet among the Arabs, something quite acceptable up the modern era, and rejoiced in Jerusalem on hearing about the announcement of the imminent arrival of Christ. The context and explain rumors that Rabbi Jacob nevertheless sends rabbi Abraam meet the alleged Arab prophet who launched an attack against Jerusalem. Puisqu 'There are only fragmentary information is explained by the language barrier and armed confrontations. In fact, Jews were persecuted at that particular time in Syria and forced to Christianize. The wars in Syria correspond precisely with Timeline of Muslim conqêtes reported by Muslim comm chroniciens ibn Ishaq, Tabari, and other Waqidi .. 2.1.6 Sophronius (560-638) and Taking of Jerusalem by Umar.:

"The Saracen infidels entered the city of our Lord Christ, Jerusalem, with the permission of God and as punishment for our negligence, immense, and immediately ran they came to the place called the Capitol. And took with them men, some by force, others voluntarily, to clean this place and build it this cursed thing, for their prayer they call Mosque (midzgitha). "[15], [16] * is the Sophronii priest who gave the keys of Jerusalem to Umar when taking the city by Muslims. Cleaning rubbish at Mount Temple defiled by Christians consolidates the accounts of chroniciens Muslims, such as Tabari.

2.1.7. Chronicle of Khuzistan (660):

"Under Yazdagird began the reign of the Persians God sent them against the onslaught of the Sons of Ishmael, who were as numerous as the sands on the seashore.. Whoever their guide (mdabbrana ) was Muhammad (mhmd). What the dome of Abraham, we have not found, but we know that the blessed Abraham, rich and wanting to get away from the lust of the Canaanites, preferred to reside on sites apart and wide open desert; and, as appropriate to the inhabitants of tents, he built this place to worship and offer sacrifices (...) ". [17]" (...) Because the Arabs are not nothing, when they worship God there, but to continue the ancient custom, as befits people to honor the ancestor of their race. Hazor, Scripture calls the head of kingdoms, belongs to the Arabs : it is called Medina, named Mydian, the fourth son of Abraham, it is also called Yathrib. "[18]

2.1.8. John of Damascus (675-749):

"There is also the religion of the Ishmaelites which still dominates today misleads the people and announces the coming of the antichrist. It derives its origin from Ishmael, son of Abraham and Hagar. For this reason they are called Agarène and Ishmaelites; they are also called Saracens, which means stripped by Sara Agar said, indeed, to the Angel: Sara sent me stripped so they were idolaters and worshiped and the Morning Star.. Aphrodite, they called precisely Khaba [r] in their language, which means big. So until the time of Heraclius, they openly practiced idolatry. From that time and until until today a false prophet, named













Maamed, rose among them, who, having heard by chance of the Old and New Testament, and, likewise, attended probably an Arian monk, founded his own heresy. Having reconciled the favor of the people by feigning piety, he insinuates that a scripture from heaven was revealed to him by God. Who wrote in his book some ludicrous doctrines, it transmits them this way to worship God. He says there is one God, creator of all things, He is not begotten and He n ' not begotten. According to him, Christ is the Word of God and his Spirit, it is created and it is a servant; he was born without a seed of Mary, the sister of Moses and Aaron. Indeed he says, the Word and the Spirit of God are entered into Mary and Jesus have created, which was a prophet and servant of God. And, he says, the Jews, in defiance of the law, wanted to put cross and, after seizing him, they crucified him as his shadow. Christ himself, he said, undergoes neither the cross nor death. Indeed God took with him in heaven, because He loved her. And he also said that once Christ ascended into heaven, God asked him, saying: Jesus! did you say: I am the son of God and God? Jesus according to him, replied: Be merciful to me, O Lord! You know I did not say this and that I disdain to be your servant. But the bad men wrote that I had made ​​this statement; they lied to me, and they are wrong. God, he says, told him: I know you did not make that statement. Many other absurdities worthy of laughter are reported in this Written, and it boasts that it is down to him from God. But we say: Who testifies that God gave him a scripture or who among the prophets announced that this prophet was to come? We put them in trouble when we tell them: Moses received the Law on Mount Sinai in the sight of all the people, when God appeared in a cloud, fire, darkness and the storm; and all the prophets from Moses, have in turn announced that the Christ comes, that Christ is God and the son of God happen by taking flesh, will be crucified, he will die and rise again, and that it was he who will judge the living and the dead. And when we say: Why is your prophet is he not come in the same way with the other bore witness to him, and why God gave the Law to Moses in the eyes of all the people on a mountain smoking, not did he not send him the scripture which you speak in your presence, to sit your certainty? They say that God does what He wills. This, we say, we know we, but we ask how Scripture was revealed to your Prophet. They reply that it is in a state of sleep that Scripture down on him. For we mock them we say: Since it received the Scripture in his sleep, not realizing this activity, the adage People suits him parfaitement- you songes- Charge to me. We ask them again: Because it - even ordered you, in your writing, not to do or receive anything without witnesses nothing, Why did not he not ask you: You are the first evidence with witnesses that you are a prophet and that you are sent from God; and what Scripture testifies in your favor. Ashamed, they are silent. With reason we say: since you are not allowed to marry a woman, or to buy or acquire without witnesses; so only the faith and Scripture you accept without a witness! For whoever gave you this scripture has no guarantee of any side, and does not know anyone who had testified on his behalf in advance. Moreover, he was received in his sleep! They call us idolaters because, they say, we introduce besides God associate when we say that Christ is the son of God and God. We tell them: this is what the prophets and the Scripture transmitted to us. You also, as you claim, you accept the prophets. And if we say wrongly that Christ is the son of God, they are the ones who taught us and which we have passed. Some of them say that we added it to the prophets, interpreting them allegorically, and others that the Hebrews, for hate, misled us by assigning these texts to the prophets, to destroy us. (...) It is said, moreover, that this stone is the head of Aphrodite, before which they worshiped and they called Chabar. And even today, the trace of an effigy appears to those who observe carefully. This Maamed, as has been said, has made ​​many stupid written and given a title for each of them. Thus writes of Women, where it is prescribed clearly everyone to take four thousand women and concubines, if possible, so that his hand retains submitted outside the four women; and may repudiate, if he wants, and take another. He established this law for the following reason: Maamed had a mate called Zayd. This man had a beautiful woman who fell in love Maamed. As they sat together Maamed said: Friend, God ordered me to take your wife. Zayd replied: You are an envoy, do as God has said, take my wife. Or more precisely, to take the story at the beginning, he said, God has given me the order that you repudiated your wife. It repudiated. A few days later he said, God has given the order to take it myself. After taking and committed adultery with her, he promulgated this law: Whoever divorces his wife wants. But if divorced after he returned to her, another wife. It is not permissible, indeed to take it if she was not married by another. And if a brother who repudiates his brother's wife if he so desires. In the same written it gives such recommendations: "Laboure the land God has given you, and puts all your care for it; this do, and so "- not to say obscenities like him. There is still the writing of the camel of God. At about it he said that a camel had been sent by God, she drank the whole river and could not pass between two mountains, for lack of sufficient space. There was, he said, people at this location: one day it is he who drank water and then it was the camel. When she drank water, she fed them by giving them milk instead of water. But these men who, he said, were wicked rose up and killed the camel. (...) Maamed said again writes La Table. He said that Christ had asked for a table and it was given to him. According to him, God answered him; I gave you, and the like, an incorruptible table. He said, writes La Vache and other ridiculous words that I think I ought to mention, because of their numbers. He commanded them and their women to be circumcised. He ordered not observe the Sabbath and do not get baptized, conceding to eat certain foods forbidden by the Law, but to abstain from others. He also absolutely forbidden to drink wine. "[19] Here the passages showing traces confirming the historicity of Muhammad:

1. One God (cf. 3: 2/1).
2. Creator of all things (2: 117/111)
3. Did not cause nor begotten (cf. 112: 3)
4. Christ is the Word of God and spirit (4: 171/169).
5. but created (3: 59/52)
6. and slave (4: 172/170)
7. Born of Mary, virgin (3: 47/49)
8. sister of Moses and Aaron (3: 33-35 / 30: 31; 19: 27 / 28-28 / 29).
9. The Spirit entered into Mary and Jesus was born (4: 171/169).
10. prophet (19: 30/31)
11. servant of God (4: 172/170; 19: 30-31)
12. The Jews plotted to his crucifixion (cf. 3: 54/47)
13. but his shadow crucified (4: 157/156).
14. But Christ was saved (4: 157/156).
15. Is not really dead (4: 157/156)
16. For God loved (cf. with contrast 3: 57/50).
17. When Jesus comes in the clouds (cf. 4: 158; 5: 109/108).
18. God will ask him (5: 116)
19. "Jesu have you claimed to be God?" (See 5: 116)
20. Jesus answered (5: 116)
21. Lord you know I'm innocent in this (cf. 5: 116-118).
22. God will ask him (5: 119)
23. "I know you did not say anything" (cf. 5: 119)

* Note that Damascene was born in 675 in early Islam. To the point that his birth Anas ibn Malik (612-712) was to take 63 years, and John Damascene have 37 years to death to direct disciple of Muhammad. He was born during the reign of Muawiya I (c. 602- 680) which is one of the scribes of the Quran and the son of the sworn enemy of the Prophet, Abu Sufyan. Similarly, the Prophet's cousin and troisièle Caliph, Ali ibn Abu Talib (v 600 -. 661) died only 14 years before John Damascene. His parents have been direct witnesses to the arrival of the Muslims in Syria, one generation separates Muhammad, or his work reflects the large conductive lines of Islam and the Koran as they are reported in the Qur'an and by the through chronic.

2.1.9. Theophanes the Confessor (760-817):

"In this year died Mouamed, the head and the false prophet of the Saracens, after naming his companion Aboubacharos (its leadership). At the same time, his fame spread) and everyone was afraid. Early in its advent the Jews astray thought he was the Messiah who is expected of them, so that some of their leaders joined him and had accepted his religion while leaving that of Moses, who saw God. Those who made were ten in number, and they remained with him until his death. But when they saw him eating meat of camel, they realized it was not that they thought to be , and were misled about what to do, afraid to abjure his religion, these miserable taught him things illicit directed against us, Christians, and stayed with him.

I consider it necessary to account for the origin of this man. He was descended from a tribe widespread, after Ishmael, son of Abraham; for Nizaros, descendant of Ishmael, it is recognized as Father of all. He fathered two son, Moudaros and Rabias. Moudaros generated Kourasos, Kaisos, Themimes, Asados, and other unknown. All living in the desert of Midian and keeping cattle, living in tents. It are also those further away who are not of their tribe, but of that of lektan, the so-called Amanita, is Homerites. And some of them traded on their camels. Men poor and orphaned, the Mouamed above decided to enter the service of a woman rich who was a relative ç him, called Chadiga, as a worker hired to trading by camel in Egypt and Palestine. Gradually he became more daring and gained the favor of the woman, who was a widow, and the took as a wife, and took possession of his camels and of his background. Every time he came to Palestine he attended to are Jews and Christians and asked them issues scriptural. He was also suffering from epilepsy. When his wife became aware of this, she was in great distress, since she, a noble woman, was married to a man like him, who was not only poor but also epileptic. He tried to deceive and appease him by saying, 'I did not stop to see a vision of a angel called Gabriel, and being unable to bear the sight, I m' fainting and falls '. While she knew a monk, a friend (who had been exiled for his doctrine heretical), and she told him everything, including the name of the angel. Wishing to satisfy her, he told her:' He told the truth, because this is the angel that is sent to all the prophets. 'When she had heard the words of the false monk, she was the first to believe in Mouamed and proclaimed to other women of her tribe he was a prophet. Thus, the ratio spread from women to men, and initially to Aboubacharos (Abu Bakr), which he left as his successor. This heresy has prevailed in the area of Ethribos (Yathrib), in Ultimately the war: first in secret, for ten years, and by war and openly ten years. He taught his followers that whoever kills an enemy or is killed by an enemy is going to heaven; and it said that this paradise was one of eating the flesh and drinking and relationships with women, and had rivers of wine, honey and milk, and that women are not like those here below, but young, and that the reports were long lasting and fun continuously; and other things full of debauchery and stupidity; also that men should feel sympathy for each other and help those who are affected. " [20]

2.2 Visions of prophecy, a tumultuous life.

The Quran testifies that the first visions of Muhammad deeply disturbed. He does not conceive of related prophecies, nor even conceived condemnation of idolatry: (Qur'an, 96). He clearly feared to be reached possession or madness (Qur'an, 68: 2). The rejection of idols clearly not going through his mind for a long period of time. Even when Jonas already mentioned, in the second sura inspired, no intediction idols will appear: (Qur'an, 68:47). The third sura in chronological order does not command the rejection of idols, but command the worship of Allah (Qur'an, 73: 8-9). The fourth sura (Sura 74) appoint idols "impurities" but does not categorically condemns their worship. Nothing thus indicates that Muhammad was considering banning the worship of idols to debut during his first visions. The merger with Judeo-Christianity is establishing very gradually, so almost imperceptible. The first prohibition of idol worship according to the Koran dates back to several years after the first vision Hira. The link between Abraham and Mecca site is nonetheless mentioned from Sura 14, the 72nd in the chonologique order to Yathrib before the Hijra. The relationship between Abraham and the valley of Mecca is not a voluntary approchement in contact with the Israelites, but a pre-existing belief in Muhammad. In his biography of Muhammad, Maxime Rodinson describes these mystical experiences as follows ... After trying Muhammad with a psychoanalysis of the information transmitted by medieval historians, and have established a parrallel between Quranic verses and posésies inspired by jinn in pre-Islamic Arabia, the historian wrote: "But as he was gifted with a personality strangely richer and more powerful than ordinary Kahin dissatisfaction also urged him to think. Any intellectual development was taking place parallel to the repercussions of his innate temperament of his personal history on the nervous plan. And this intellectual development was of rare quality ... Gradually, his mind was advancing on a path that was to lead him to go beyond the horizon of his country and of his time. ". After comparing over forty pages, Muhammad with some mystics as Teresa of Ávila and have supported the idea that Muhammad sincerely believed in the voice that dictated things, Rodinson concludes, "Mohammed also had to remove, sort, unconsciously no doubt, and retain only what edified, exortait, consoled. His most beautiful poems probably were never written. He was waiting for God's messages in a given direction and waiting modeled the verb that sought, unsuccessfully, to be more stronger than him. Beyond glossalistes Christians, he found the approach of the great prophets of Israel. ". [21] The rapprochement with Judeo-Christianity will be gradual. As stated above, it identifies the first references to the conviction of idols after several years, but gradually the verses mention Biblical figures from the second sura. Muhammad surprised the rationality of being said to be illiterate and therefore was not able to read the Bible, he probably did not tolerate being ridiculed by the holders of the scriptures ... Also, stories about biblical figures are very concise, very shallow and marked by a very impressive caution. Caution reflecting the archaisms of Qur'anic stories lacking in post-biblical Masoretic version, but being comforted by archeology and historical criticism, can only be reinforced by the original Cohanim midrashim of Yathrib and not of imagination the Prophet. "2.3 Muhammad, tribal leader: After his first vision Hira, Muhammad had no vision Chroniclers report that would at first doubted his reason and thought to be possessed by a djinn But after discussing.. with his wife Khadija and uncle of the latter, an Arab Nestorian, it seems that he began to hope one second vision. Tabari reports that after six months of emptiness, Muhammad would be mounted on a mountain, and even desperate suicidal. What stands out from all the prophets of Israel systematically seeking to flee their missions. Whatever in his first vision he would have shown resistance. Nevertheless hear this metallic voice, described by the Prophet as such reasoning noise a bell, ordered him to get up and pray to the Lord after six months of empty. The voice soon commendera him to call people to Allah. The mission of the Prophet and therefore beginner, about two years after his first vision Hira. 2.3.1 Seeking support. Muhammad had started calling his family, then his tribe Hashemite then all Qoraïche. No one is a prophet in his country, he will be threatened, attacked, injured. After the death of Khadija, it will abu Talib, a paternal uncle who support the while, another elder uncle abu Talib, Abu Lahab will pursue everywhere during his sermons and denounced as a disgrace of his clan. Nevertheless, the entire clan that protected by tribalism will suffer very severe ambargo. Finally, Muhammad will seek support in neighboring tribes ... Without much success. Indeed, it is at first, it seems, the weak, the women and the slaves to be seduced by its appeal to more lavish and justice. 2.3.2 exile faithful to Abyssinia. The persecution became more and more unbearable, Muhammad command his most loyal threatened to take refuge in Abyssinia. It was much later that emissaries of Yathrib, the native city of his mother, his offer to take refuge at home with his followers. Muhammad, after eleven years of preaching and appeal to Mecca and around eventually refuge in Yathrib. 2.3.3 The oath of Aqaba. The emissaries made ​​a pact with the Prophet. The pact concluded in Aqaba will be the foundation of the Islamic state which will be the center Yathrib. Many pacts with scattered tribes are mentioned by chroniclers. The alliance Medina, Muhammad camp of the allies gradually spread into the entire western half of the peninsula, Yemen to the Byzantine borders of the Middle East. While other tribes will ally or strengthen their already existentes Qoraishite alliances with powerful tribe of Mecca. 2.3.4 The Treaty of Yathrib. One of the first things done by the Prophet when he arrived in Yatrhib will be the drafting of a treaty [22] uniting Meccan emigrants Islamized, polytheists, Jews and Muslims two enemy tribes of Yathrib, and the Israelite tribes allied in a mutual support pact. Muhammad and transposing the system of tribal alliance pacts to form a mega-tribe. The rules of non-aggression, blood money avoiding feuds and mutual support will thus be extended throughout the city of Yathrib and will expand gradually from Yathrib. This pact ending the various ancestral between the Aws and Khazraj, two Arab tribes of Yathrib. Qoraïche his side will form a broad alliance against which the alliance will face Medina. All battles against Muhammad will be the members of the Meccan tribes alliance until diplomatic dispute with the Byzantine and Persian, Yemen and the Middle East, which will form two fronts fighting towards the end of his life. 2.3.5 The rights protection system. In pre-Islamic times, the stronger crush the weaker, if a small tribe was a member killing a member of a most powerful tribe, it was wiped off the map by a must vendetta. Yathrib treaties and pacts with the tribes sought to avoid a civil war within the alliance through a pact protecting all alliance members. Articles thus provided for a price of blood in case of involuntary murder and retaliation in case of premeditated murder on a member of the alliance. It is often assumed that the Sharia laws would voluntarily violent to be dissuasive, this belief is anti-historical in fact. The retaliation was in fact aimed at minimizing private vengences and avoid vendettas. (Qur'an, 2: 179): "There for you in retaliation, life. "Muhammad and establish a protection of natural law to ensure the integrity and security of all alliance members: life, offspring, property, honor, religion, ... Each violation of these rights human being punishable by a Koranic and prophetic sentence. To avoid settling of private and avoid vendettas, Muhammad and occasional protections provided sunrises under the protection and immunity guaranteed by Islam among members of the alliance so avoid settling may degenerate. Indeed, in a Hadith we read that Muhammad said: "The blood of a Muslim is" permitted "only in three cases: premeditated murder of a Muslim, adultery of a married person and apostasy followed by taking up arms against us: in this case it will be the attachment to a post three days, death, or expulsion. "It is clear from these words of the Prophet, these were barely one-time immunity sunrises and not real obligations. In Islam, there is no orthopraxy indeed. There are the Prophet and returning systematically and twice adulterine retrourner telling them to repent. Forgiving Wahchi that killed his uncle Hamza in the battle at Uhud. Hudaybiyya and signing a pact to allow apostates into exile to Mecca. Which shows that for Muhammad, these penalties were not an imperative duty, but "allowed". In another hadith, we read: "Outside (six) fixed penalties, we can not punish people for more than ten sticks. "According to Muslim, during the stoning of the first Muslim, Maiz, for adultery, it would have escaped during the stoning. Pursued by the faithful and killed. Learning of this, the Prophet the apparently reprimanded, saying they would have let him escape to repent. It appears that here too for Muhammad, the base is the protection of the integrity of individuals, punishment is possible sunrises their immunity guaranteed by Islam so as to avoid the regulations of private accounts likely to degenerate and the canalysant violence in situations of deception, murder, theft, robbery or dismemberment. Outside of six penalties we quote below, Muhammad never resort to compulsion, except his tolerance of mollestation an alcoholic with sandals by disciples, instructing the faithful, however, not to insult Amr. 2.3.6 The list of fixed penalties, or considered fixed: the hudud.

• 1 / flogging the fornicator (al-zina)
• 2 / prophetic sentence inherited from the Torah, the stoning of adulterous the (al-zina)
• 3 / flogging for false imputation of the crime, called (al-qadf bi-l-zina)

• 4 / amputation of the hand of thieves (sariqah)
• 5 / attachment to a pole or cross amputation of hands and feet to banditry (bar the way to rob), called (Qat 'al-Tariq)
• 6 / prophetic sentence: apostasy, called (al-riddah)
• [7 / Umar penalty, flogging consumers of alcoholic beverages (churb khamr-u).]

2.3.7 The issue of the non-fixed penalties ta'zir.

As the penalties and forms of constraints set by the Prophet were limited to half a dozen of hudud, channeling violence so to ensure the unity of the alliance, the faithful faced with new situations elaborated unfixed sentences, appointed ta'zir. Thus notes the case of alcohol, later punished not 100 lashes under Umar ibn al-Khattab, while the maxium allowed outside the hudud was ten sticks allowed. This penalty will be discussed by some other disciples, but will remain in use. Similarly, no cases of homosexuality being identified during the lifetime of Muhammad, lawyers will compare this case to fornication, or a form of apostasy. Condemning the sodomites to the death penalty. abu Hanifa reffusant the two theses, and considering sodomy as a reprehensible act, but to which no penalty is ordered. Indeed, the Qur'an reproaches among other people in Sodom rape of male visitors, but they also criticized the systematic abandonment of women, and other crimes, but especially the rejection of their messenger, Lot. And does not provide penalty against homosexual relations. abu Hanifa will consider homosexual relationships as different and less serious than fornication and adultery, as it does not lead to a risk of grosesse, loss of virginity, or mixing lines. While other schools consider it as a form of fornication and held for more grve. The most disturbing point is the extension to apostasy, by lawyers who will base which will be named "Sharia", a series of behaviors. As among others abandonment of daily prayer, or reffus to pay zakat, which divide the first generations. The status of the Sodomites also be discussed so hotly contested. These decrees are better understood when we know that only six or seven sentences were available to lawyers to handle a population increasingly large, and cases increasingly diverse and new. Yet it seems that Muhammad has never condemned an apostate for his apostasy alone, as there was not an army participation in the enemy camp or another crime agravant as murder or incitement to an active war. The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah allowing apostates return to Mecca evidently testifies that in the mind of the Prophet, apostasy in itself was not punishable by death compulsorily. All jurisprudence on heresiology and acts considered apostasy are opinions of legal experts, not based on the practice of the Prophet, derived from a long Arab-Islamic tradition. During his lifetime, Muhammad resort to coercion in the event of different disrupting social relations. It may be noted in the Qur'an and three separate statutes in the ranks of Muhammad: the believers, the hypocrites and sinners (fussâq). 2.3.8 The doctrinal trends. In debates on hérisiologie and flexibility and rigor of judgments , groups will be formed to defend the murji'isme, Kharijism and other doctrinal approaches. Finally, many of the practices considered as great sins will not be considered as a form of apostasy. This approach will be the middle orthodox school, regarded as the one founded by the Prophet and his direct disciples. Nevertheless, the jurisprudential rulings on heresiology persist as part of responses to murji'ite Kharijite and movements defending the lightness of the major sins, or considering them instead as forms of apostasy. And while you will not find Muhammad compelling people to comply with Islamic rules through the heart, his successors will develop punishment and physical constraints against dissidents not yielding to these rules. 2.4 Relations with holders of Saintes-entries: Details on the Prophet's life are unfortunately not acquired some way. The character was enhanced by the popular imagination and the zealous admiration of true writing biographies. The work of the historian is to try what appears to discriminate based on what emanates from apologists imagination or interpretation. To achieve a rigorously scientific study and historical-critical aspects of the life of Muhammad, we must continually seek to consolidate the accounts of the chroniclers and medieval historians with our anthropological knowledge, sociological, historical and seek to put every detail of our analysis a rebuttable basis, reliable and neutral. As the first true writing (at least in its form consanantique) the time of the Prophet, the Qur'an will be a good gauge to assess the traditional stories that are reported by the chroniclers. It is possible to reconstruct a story when we have multiple variants of a story, since the names of the transmitters are systematically transmitted at the top of each story. Do not lose sight of the uncertain and complex nature of this approach. Since as many experts like Ignaz Goldziher, Arent Wensinck and Josef Horovitz have argued, we can not ask us as perfectly reliable source of information. The rigorous historical approach is only relatively recent, it would be futile to seek such rigor among medieval historians. As highlighted in the section Decoding of the Koran, the Koran contains archaisms ignored the Bible and literature parabiblique yet available, which are supported by archeology. We have argued in another paper originally pre-Masoretic midrashic these archaisms of the Koran. Indeed, the Jews of Yathrib were original and had Levite do you think immigrants in the oasis of the city during the deportation to Babylon, or the time of David. Koranic blame the Jews distort the writings and Triage is clearly an echo reaction of Yathrib Levites to work sorting and standardization of Hellenized and Babylonian voyellisation rollers. We often ignore these archaisms of the Qur'an and historical-critical and archaeological relevance. Similarly, protected from the grip of both Catholic and Orthodox Churches that Coptic Christians of Arabia were split into numerous sects, elsewhere extinct or assimilated. It is in this environment that Muhammad reportedly said: "The Jews were divided into 71 groups: One group will enter Paradise and 70 will come into hell. The Christians are divided into 72 groups: 71 come into hell and enter Paradise. For one who holds my soul in His hand, my ummah will divide into 73 groups: one will enter Paradise and 72 will come into Eenfer. "Someone asked," O Messenger of Allah, who will they be? "He replied:" The main body of Muslims. "

2.4.1 Relations with the Jews.

While Muhammad soummettait enslaved prisoners of war, there he granted a protected status to the holders of the scriptures. It will thus not enslaved Israelite tribes fought for betrayal, but defeated and expel them. Except banu Qurayza tribe, whose medieval historians report that males who carried arms against the followers of Muhammad when assiègement of Yathrib were sentenced to death in a court millitary and the rest was sold in Najd on Sa'd ibn decree of Mu'ad. Khaibar Jews to remain in osasis to pay a poll tax. The tribes and clans of Yathrib were mixed in-between diplomatic ties and blood, and after the expulsion and destruction of three major Jewish tribes of Yathrib, there still remained Jews in the city and surrounding areas. But their status was seriously weakened, so that no insurgency can not now be possible. Those of them who was not Islamized, even formality, under the reign of Umar ibn al-Khattab were deported more in the north, out of the Hijaz. Outside the Israelites of Yathrib, Muhammad signed many pacts with the Jews of Arabia. There are among these: the Jews of Khaibar, those Wadi'al Qura, Tayma, Maqna and Jews and Jabrah Adruh. Muhammad will judge two adulterous Jews brought before him for judgment. Muhammad decreed that they should be judged according to the Torah, taking care to make the rolls, it will land on a cushion on her lap and read by a rabbi, and confirm with Abdullah bin Salam, Rabbi Islamized. It will make so stoned, as the Law of Moses commanded. The Qur'an command Jews to observe the mitzvot (Qur'an, 5:68). As has been supported by several historians, it seems that the battle of the coalition was a diplomatic breaking point between Muhammad and the Jews. So it is found trying to strengthen the political and socio-cultural ties between the community of the faithful and the Jews of the city of Yathrib before assiègement, diplomatic relations seen changing with them, and now marking a distance with the Jewish communities of Yathrib. Nevertheless, it will continue to stay friends with other Jewish communities in the region. To those of Khaibar, he will pay to stay in their neighborhood to work the palm groves. Relations with Jews Wadi'al Qura, Tayma, Maqna and Jews Jabrah Adruh and seem to have been affected after taking Mecca and assiègement of Khaibar. But the biggest break will not dipolomatique now, the faithful turn to Mecca to Jerusalem and ... The Qur'anic discourse against the children of Israel will not be more hardened after year five, however, and will remain in the typical canonical part of the Bible to them, severe, critical and hard. It is difficult to know how the Prophet knew Judaism and was informed, but it appears evident that although conceived as the Law of Moses only imposed on the Jewish people, and has never sought to comply are faithful. 2.4.2 The relationship with Christians. The reports of the Prophet with Christians is darkest, probably because Muhammad had relations with them as rare. However, historians mention exchanges of correspondence with the Negus of Abyssinia, and passionate speeches in the Mosque of Medina with a cohort of priests from the Najd. What is gained is the recognition by Muhammad Jesus as a Jewish prophet and Messiah. The virgin birth of Jesus is also retained, and Christ is recognized as the Incarnate Word of God. According to Ibn Ishaq, it seems that the Negus was questioned by a delegation of Qoraïche of polytheists enquiérrant the right to bring the fugitives to Mecca to be punished. To achieve their purpose, they would have tried to show Muhammad's followers as heretics on this point Ibn Ishaq reports that the Negus asked to discuss with the Member of the nearest fugitives of Muhammad and demanded that their prophet said about Jesus and Mary. If the testimony of Ibn Ishaq is correct, it seems that Jabir (son of Abu Talib, Muhammad's uncle) said they would recognize Jesus as prophet and servant of God and as the Incarnate Word of God, born of Mary without father and recognize him as the Messiah. With that, the Negus would shed tears and picked up a fallen straws, and turning to Abu Sufyan, the leader of the delegation of Qoraïche they would have said: "By the Lord, there is no difference in this between what we believe and what you teach your prophet. I will never you my guests. " Knowing that historically the Ethiopian Christology was miaphysitism Jesus was considered among Abyssinian and therefore for the Negus as having human nature, and was considered at the same time as the incarnate Word of God, the two natures are clearly distinct. The divinity of Jesus is condemned in Islam, as in Judaism as blasphemy. But Jesus is retained by Muhammad as the Messiah of Israel and the incarnate Word of God. Tradition relates nevertheless categorically that the Prophet would have made ​​a funeral prayer of the Negus when he died in Yathrib. Christians also enjoy a protected status, like the Jews are free to practice their faiths on condition of paying a capitation. The Quran has many passages that reach certain apocryphal writings. 2.4.3 The Apocrypha and the Koran, to a new canon: The Qur'an contains some accounts not included in the canonical writings. However, they are supported by apocryphal writings as old as the later canonical writings. And are retained by the Fathers of the Church as stories based in the time of Muhammad. The Koran joins passages from the gospel of the childhood of Thomas and the Proto-evangelium of Jacques, dated to the first half of the second century. So prior to the Gospels of Luke (around 178, not earlier than 140) and Jean (circa 185-190). It is obvious that Muhammad took the solidly Christian communities of Arabia, and do not consider as inventions. However, as stressed by many scholars like Marie Thérèse Urvoy, Luxenberg and other, it was aware of the differences between factions loyal and wanted to establish a clean barrel. Blaming Christians for hiding certain writings: "O people of the Scripture holders! Our Apostle has come to you making clear to you much of Scripture that you hide and erasing [too] much of it. ". (Qur'an, 5:15) a) The youth of Jesus and Mary The Proto-evangelium of Jacques and the Gospel of Thomas's childhood are the oldest Jewish-Christian writings as those of Luke and John. Which were often used by the Fathers of the Church before finally qualified apocryphal. These writings are very old, older than the guns and join the Koran in several points. Thus, the names of the parents of Mary, the animals of the manger, and especially the dogma of the immaculate conception are based on the Proto-evangelium fammeux of Jacques, who joins the Koran on the draw for the care of Mary, that it is nourished by angels etc. b) The dogma of the immaculate conception ignored in Islam, the names of Mary's parents in the same sources joining the Qur'anic stories Roman Catholics and the Church support the perpetual virginity Marie. This does not appear in the canonical gospels, or anywhere in the Bible but is found in the Proto-evangelium of Jacques, an apocryphal writing some passages join excerpts from the Koran. The Qur'an does not know the immaculate conception of the Apocrypha. C) The draw for the care of Mary (Qur'an 3.43): "These are the news of the unseen which We reveal to you. Because you were not the when they cast their pens to decide who would take care of Mary! You were not the either when they quarreled. "This Quranic allusion to the draw by launching calame to designate who was to return custody of Mary as a child is taken from apocryphal Christian texts." ... And the priest put on the dress to the twelve bells, entered the . Holy of Holies and began to pray And an angel of the Lord appeared, saying, 'Zechariah, Zechariah, come out and summons widowed people, that they each bring a wand And he to whom the Lord will show a.. will sign his wife. ' ... Heralds is égaillèrent throughout the country of Judea and the trumpet of the Lord sounded, and here they all came running. Joseph threw his ax and he also went to join the troupe. They went together to the priest with their chopsticks. The priest took these sticks, entered the temple and prayed. His finished praying, he took the rods, left and went to them. None was wearing a sign. Now Joseph was his last. And here that a dove flew from his wand and came to perch on his head Then the priest. "Joseph, Joseph, he said, you are the one: it is you who take caution virgin of the Lord. ' "(Jacques Protoevangelium of VIII, IX-3, 1) d) Marie nourished by angels (Qur'an, 3:37):" Whenever Zachariah visited her in the Temple, he was with her ​​the necessary food and asked: 'O Mary! Where did you come from? ' She replied: 'This is from God; God gives sustenance to whom he pleases without measure '' Joined Ch. VIII Protoevangelium: "The hand of an angel nourished. "And c. XIII: "You who were brought up in the Holy of Holies, which was nourished by the hand of an angel. (. D. Rops - Deer - 1952, p 53 and 57) "* Another excerpt from Jacques de Proto-evangelium basis the immaculate conception" 19.3 And the midwife leaving the cave, and Salome met she said. "Salome, Salome, I have amazing news for you: a virgin gave birth, against the law of nature." And Salome said, "As surely as the Lord my God lives, if I put my finger and if I examined his body, I will never believe that a virgin gave birth "20.1 And the midwife went in and said.." Mary, get ready because this is not a small debate that rises to your . subject "With these words, Mary got ready Salome put his finger in his nature and a scream, she said.!" Woe to my wickedness and my unbelief she said, I tried the living God And! behold, my hand is undone by the action of a fire. '"(Jacques Protoevangelium of XIX-XX 3, 2)

e) The deification of Mary among some Christians in the time of Muhammad

(Qur'an, 4: 116): "(Remind them) when Allah will say:" O Jesus, son of Mary, is it you who told people :? Take me and my mother for two gods besides Allah ' ""

(Arabic Gospel of childhood, Chapter 17). "When the day came, the (same) woman took scented water to bathe the Lord Jesus And after washing, she took the bathwater (But) there was a girl whose body was white with leprosy She poured over it some of that water and get washed;.. and as soon as it was cleansed of his leprosy As for the people. the place, he said. "Without a doubt, Joseph, Mary and the child are gods and not of men" And when (Mary and Joseph) resolved to leave, the girl who was leprous s' approached them and asked them to take him. "This passage from the Arabic Gospel of childhood demonstrates what some Christians contemporaries of Muhammad held Jesus and Mary for deities. . Not to be confused with the notion of Theotokos, God Mother, which is a different concept still f) Jesus makes clay birds (Qur'an, 5: 110): "And when God will say:" O Jesus, son of Mary, remember My blessing to you and to your mother when I reinforced you with the Holy Spirit. In the cradle you spoke to the people, as in your middle age. I taught you the Book and Wisdom, the Torah and the Gospel ! thou makest out of clay as a form of bird by My permission;.. So then you breathed into by My permission, it became a bird and you healed by My leave, the blind and the leper and by Ma. permission you brought the dead I was protecting you against the Children of Israel while you was bringing their evidence But those of them who disbelieved said:.. "This is nothing but obvious magic." "

"The child Jesus was five years old, was playing on the edge of a river, and reaped in small pits waters flowed, and soon they became pure and they obeyed his voice. Having made mud, he used to shape twelve birds, and it was the sabbath day. And many other children were there and played with him. A Jew saw what Jesus did, and he was playing the day Sabbath immediately went and told his father Joseph ". Behold, your son is on the brink of the river, and he fashioned twelve birds with mud, and he has profaned the Sabbath" Joseph came to this place, and saw what Jesus did, he said: "Why did you, on the Sabbath, it is forbidden to do?" Jesus clapped his hands and said to the birds: ". Go» And they flew away screaming. The Jews were filled with admiration at the sight of this miracle, and came and told what they had seen Jesus do. "(Gospel of childhood according to Thomas, Chapter II)

The production of animated statues is no stranger to ancient Judaism. "Being mostly human form, the golem is created by a magic act with knowledge of sacred names. In Judaism, the appearance of the golem term dates back to the Book of Psalms and the interpretation gives the Talmud. It is in this context, sometimes be a form of incomplete or lacking defined, sometimes the state of the raw material to the Talmud Thus he sometimes calls Adam "golem" when it wants to refer to the first twelve hours of life: this is to evoke his body still devoid of soul But above Yesirah Sefer (Book of Creation) and the esoteric exegesis that was one. made who developed the idea of ​​the golem related to beliefs about the creative power of speech and letters of the Hebrew alphabet ... "(Encyclopaedia Britannica 2005)

The Talmud also speaks of the manufacturing golem by rabbis versed in the scriptures. The Qur'an insists in this passage about the science of Jesus ... The Sefer Yetzira (Book of training) mentione the possibility of manufacturing golem. This book is in the Jewish tradition attributed to the Patriarch Abraham.

The dating of the manuscripts shows that despite the retouching, the gospel of the childhood of Thomas predates the Gospel of John. Dating child apocryphal gospels: towards 130-140: The first two parts at least until Chapter 22 (manufacture of birds is in the second part) of the "Gospel of children" / "of Protoevangelium Jacques "/" Jacques Hebrew "seem to already known. This text tells the childhood of Jesus, but he knows nothing of Jewish customs. This book of the late & be revamped because it uses the title "Mother of God" (Theotokos) for this title out ... Mary dates from the Council of Ephesus in 431. The Gospel of John would date a aparemment shortly before 152, and would be finalized by the end of the II E S.

g) canonical Gospels and the time of the finalization of the Gospel of John

(John 20: 30-31): "Jesus did in the presence of his disciples, many other signs, which are not written in this book 20:31 But these are written that you may believe that Jesus. is the Christ. "

The mention of manufacturing golem appears in the Gospel of Thomas Child, dated before the Gospel of John, who knows that there are many unrecorded signs of stories in the manuscript. The joining of the Qur'anic stories are apocryphal texts chronologically founded before the manuscripts of the later canonical writings, and contemporary of the oldest manuscripts available. The question of their canonicity still being debated between different faiths in the time of Muhammad, Muhammad wants to establish its own canon.

h) The veneration of Hosea as God's son

(Qur'an, 9:30): "The Jews say: 'Uzair a son of Allah" and the Christians say: "Christ the son of Allah." That is a saying from their mouths. They imitate the saying of those who disbelieved before them. May Allah's curse be! How they are deluded away (from the truth)? "

In Jewish mysticism, Idriss, Enoch, Moses, ..., are reincarnations of Enoch sent to Earth. When Enoch died, he became the master of the Archangels Metatron, a son of god. This is what is condemned by the verse of the Koran. Mystics give him immense powers. This passage from the Koran thus concerns the worship Ezra as son of God among the Jews of Arabia, as réoncarnation of Enoch and his prototype.

i) The strange journey of Moses, the Israelites own midrash of Yathrib

(Qur'an, 18: 60-65): "(Remember) when Moses said to his attendant: 'I will not give up until I reach the junction of the two seas, even if I spend years and years." Then, when they had reached the Junction, they forgot their fish, and it took its way into the sea Then, when they had gone [there,] he told his servant. 'Bring us our breakfast: we suffered much fatigue in this our journey. " [The valet him] said, 'When we took refuge on the rock, you see, I forgot the fish - but Satan made ​​me forget (you) remember this - and it took its way in the sea'. [Moses] said, 'This is what we were looking for.' Then they retraced their steps, following in their footsteps. They found one of Our servants whom We had bestowed Mercy from Ourselves and whom We had taught knowledge from Our own. "

Lidzbarski Dyroff and have suggested a link between the Qur'anic story and the novel of Alexander in 1892. The connection was then developed by Vollers, Hartmann and Friedlander who supported the passage 18: 60-65 Quran depends stories from the novel by Alexandre. The most influential theory about the nature of this passage from the Koran is probably that of Arent Wensinck "Al-Khadir" in the Encyclopaedia Of Islam. This article was printed in the first (1927, Volume II) and second (1978) editions of the Encyclopaedia Of Islam, without any modification.

Or, more recently, on the basis of detailed studies on the influence of Pseudo-Callisthenes Syriac on the Qur'an (18: 60-102), and different book reviews written at different times of Alexander's story, after a critical analysis palaeographic and rigorous, finding Wheeler palaeographic changed the conclusions which can be summarized as follows: [24] the history of the Qur'an (18: 60-65), although later identified as the fish episode from the stories of Alexander, is not like the early history prior to the Qur'an and is independent of the Alexander stories. The accounts subsequent to approach the Qur'an Qur'anic account, while the later hadiths tend towards the narrative of Alexander's novel and the sermon of Jacob of Serugh dated to the lives. The paleographic study demonstrates that the narrative of the Koran is independent of the original story of Alexander's novel.

Thus, the history of the Qur'an (18: 60-65), although later identified as the fish episode from the stories of Alexander, is not like the first story and is independent of the Alexander stories. [23]

It was also near this passage from the Koran with the Talmudic story of Joshua ben Levi Eli is perceived as an inspiration of the Koran. But this story is not narrated by Joshua ben Levi that predates Muhammad, but after Muhammad in the IXth Pesikta 36a. In this case, the Talmudic story that is subsequent to the Koran. The influence was oprérée in reverse. This Qur'anic narrative is thus based on a well-endemic midrash of Cohanim of Yathrib, and is independent of the story of Alexander's novel, and the story earlier on Joshua ben Levi. 2.5 The status Protected (dhimmah) and capitation (jizyah): The Quran granted protected status to non-Muslim religious minorities of the country, in return for a capitated per capita. The status of the dhimmis and the value the jizyah (capitation) varied by geography and time. It often produces a document attributed to Umar II as determining the status rather restrictive and binding protected. The original document no longer exists, protected as described therein entitled to exercise their worship, upon payment of the poll tax. But proselytizing is prohibited, religious propaganda. And a belt must be worn distinctive sign to mark their religious origin. Similarly, they are prohibited from moving on a mount, and must give way to a Muslim. This document consists of point decrees Umar bin Abd al-Aziz, the practice does not reflect the lifetime of Muhammad and will not rule over the centuries. It clearly reflects a reaction to the Status of oppressed Muslims on Christian territories. It should also be emphasized that the alcohol, pork and wearing religious icons will never be forbidden outside the Hijaz and the Arabian Peninsula, to non-Muslim communities. Similarly, own courts dhimmis communities will manage social relations and intra-EU economic, such as marriage, divorce or inheritance. Thus, the brother-sister marriages, or father-daughter Mazdeans be tolerated despite the Islamic taboos. And under the Abbasid rule under the Seljuks, the Ottomans and other Islamic empires, religious minorities enjoy much more freedom. Participant even the intellectual and political activities, and accessing sometimes even to prestigious posts. Further protected were free of millitary service even in case of invasion.

The House of Wisdom founded in the IXth swarmed under the Abbasid scholars, Muslims but also Christians, Jews, Chinese or Indian ...

Often, the emphasis on coercion to pay the jizyah, or if the protected pay the poll tax, they were exempt from paying zakat tax required of Muslims. Furthermore, jizyah was not always as heavy as that. A decree of Umar II command that does not overload protected by what they would be unable to bear. Indeed, the value of jizyah is not fixed by Muhammad. Thus, it was sometimes heavier than the zakat, and sometimes less. Ranchers, farmers and probably paid less often than farmers or Muslim farmers, paying zakat of 10%. The artisans with low incomes struggling sometimes to hold them. But the proportionality income of zakat was an economic benefit of Muslims. Whatever time of crisis, kharaj and taxes were added to zakat.

2.6 warlord Muhammad, the powerful myth of a conquérent.

Often presents Muhammad as a Prophet conquérent, who submitted the people by the power of arms. However, a rigorous analysis of available information rather depict an influential tribal leader, rather organizing raids against shopping caravans, which have implemented the tribal system towards the establishment of a mega-tribe to support himself against the adverssaires as witness the covenants of Yathrib, of Aqabah and others. Bedouin culture led the powerful tribes to eradicate the smallest of the card, and to avoid the payment of blood during raids to prevent blood feuds. Muhammad will be no exception [25], and avoid a maximum payment of blood during raids. There would still be between 216 and 250 deaths among adverssaires of Muhammad and between 138 and 150 in its ranks. What was already exceptional and shocking for the time in Saudi after Maxime Rodinsson. [26] Thus, the oldest historical narratives are based counts as ibn Ishaq ibn Sa'd and Tabari that among around twenty expeditions, only ten have led to an armed confrontation, namely Badr, Uhud The Confederates, banu Quraizah, banu Mustaliq, Khaybar, Mu'ta, Mecca, Hunayn, Taif and Tabuk. Similarly, columnists cite strictly for each of the shipments Muhammad diplomatic causes arising from hostility fought enemies. This can not demonstrate a willingness to launder the Prophet parcequ'à the time of writing these biographies, different Islamic movements did not consider the battle with the infidels was a perpetual political duty. This concept appears for the first time with al-Shafi'i. Or to Shafi'i, the only battles are diplomatic conflicts without conquering ambition.

A comparison of historical geopolitical cards bear witness that Muhammad and his immediate successors were not undertaken conquest. The soummis territories are either allies or tribes Qoraïche demonstrating hostility towards Yathrib either Persian or Byzantine territories. The overlay maps reveals that neither Muhammad nor Abu Baqr nor Umar nor Uthman nor Ali n ' not undertake conquests. Most Arab tribes was Islamized after the capture of Mecca, and apart raids and raiding caravans, Muhammad began concretely total of 11 battles. It was during the Umayyad, from 661 the boundaries of Persia and Byzantine empires are forced. Before 661, the only battles are those initiated at various diplomatic among the Persians and Byzantines. Another amazing point Abyssinia will never resisted despite its proximity to the Islamic territory.

Territory of the Byzantine Empire in the time of Muhammad.

Islamic territory from Muhammad.

Persian territory at the time of Muhammad.

As for the confrontations with the Byzantine and Persian respectively in the North and Yemen, they flowed like for each of Muhammad shipments of responses to attacks and hostilities toward Yathrib. The Battle of Mu'ta has been the first clash with the Byzantines when Byzantium massacred and imprison Islamized Arabs after an exchange of letters with the Prophet. And the first confrontation with the Persians after the massacre of 70 emissaries shipping to Yemen to teach them the new religion on a request freshly Islamized faithful. And persecution of abnas Islamized in the North of the peninsula, also in the territories dominated by Persians. The myth of a conqueror Muhammad soummettant power by an army peoples is corriace but do not stand up to historical-critical analysis. Because there is not a single shipping millitary example of Muhammad on its own initiative, without that it is a response to an aggression. Undoubtedly, Muslims are columnists for something in this myth of a conquérent Prophet. 2.7 The reforms of Muhammad Muhammad made ​​many social reforms. Seen from our time, certain Islamic practices may suggest that Muhammad would have limited women's rights, favored the males or the instigator of slavery in Islam. The historical and socio-anthropological reality shows precisely the opposite. Islam is inconceivable notion of gender but considering social justice and distribution tasks. But the status of women will be greatly improved through Muhammad. 2.7.1 reforms affecting the status of women. A. Women gain an inheritance. As everywhere in the world, women were not entitled to any form of inheritance, except feminine utensils from their mothers in some tribes. Unfortunately we do not have detailed information on the previous situation by tribes, but the Prophet give half from a male to a daughter. Similarly the wife and other female members of the family will now have an inheritance. B. The limitation of polygamy to four free women. The Qur'an even limit polygamy to four wives. No limit was imposed before Muhammad. Some wealthier faithful who for some more than ten wives and must be separated from several women sure to keep only four. Now it will be forbidden to marry more than four wives at one time. The Prophet did not appear to prohibit polyandry, but this will be considered as prohibited, with the argument that this was not practiced in predecessors. And with a Gone argument: it would be impossible to determine the biological father of way. C. The right to choose her husband. "The widow does not need parental consent to get married, unmarried must agree. His silence is considered as acceptance. "Muhammad grant widows to marry who they want, and Virgin reffuser of a candidate, or to choose one according to the father or male relative the eldest of them. D. The limitation of repudiation three formulas. Before Muhammad, a husband could divorce a woman and resume indefinitely sure to cause him wrong. Muhammad will limit this to three mandatory formulations over three months, with final separation after three monthly without cohabitation. E. Facilitating and cutting short of widowhood. Likewise, Muhammad condemns the pagan widowhood, and prohibit throwing mantis on a widow by a male who made ​​her his wife. F. The female divorce, khull. (Qur'an, 4: 128): "And if a woman fears her husband or desertion, then it is no sin on them if they are reconciled by any compromise, and Reconciliation is better, since the souls are brought to the stinginess. But if you do good and you are pious ... Allah is well acquainted with all that ye do. "(Qur'an, 2: 128)" If you fear that you do not observe the laws of God, a fault will be attributed to one or the other, if the wife offers compensation. "Muhammad instaurat same female unilateral divorce. The woman who makes the dot before a judge saying that it can not ensure the function is divorced wife immediately. [27] g. The separation of a battered woman. Similarly, Muhammad was immediately divorce two women khall that their husbands had beaten them. H. The prohibition of burying girls. Several tribes buried their daughters alive shame. The Quran severely condemned this practice. I. Menstruating women are no longer considered impure. Indeed, Arabs even avoided going through the same door that a woman set, the Prophet will reform this custom and from beneath their coats and even having erotic relations with them in a state of menstrures. 2.7.2 The rules of war. a. The prohibition to kill unarmed people. "Saving children, madmen, women, priests, old and infirm, unless he took part in combat" The Prophet forbidden to kill monks, ladies, children, old people and helpless people. [28] b. The prohibition to demolish churches, synagogues or temples. (Qur'an, 10:40 p.m.): "If Allah had not driven some people back by others, monasteries were demolished and churches, synagogues and mosques in which Allah's name is mentioned much. Allah will certainly help those who help him. Allah is Strong, Almighty. "C. The ban on burning or clearing trees, or kill livestock. This will nevertheless be permitted if assiègement to force the opponent to fold. D. The prohibition of rape or looting. Indeed, the Prophet harshly condemn these abuses. Not until the decree of the Emir, if this submiting opponents to slavery, so there will only be sharing the booty and slaves. E. The prohibition of mutilating the corpses and the obligation to bury them. It was respected, despite Muhammad's uncle, Hamzah was mutilated among many faithful. Testifying for the Prophet, the retaliation does not violate the rules of war. 3.6.3 The status of slaves. A. Whoever beats a slave must free it. The Prophet would have ordered more faithful to free a slave they have beaten. B. The prohibition of castrating a slave. Muhammad reserved the right of retaliation on the master if necessary. The eunuchs and harems will castrers made ​​by Jewish merchants and Coptic priests "before buying". C. Shipping a slave to absolve certain sins. The Koran command to free more slaves to sins and shortcomings. "Slavery is naturally maintained. It is recommended to treat slaves and foster postage "according to Maxime Rodinson. [29] d. The captive who gives birth to her master a child becomes a walad umm and is automatically freed. According to this practice, women eslaves were quickly freed and were based in the free population. E. The right to work to redeem himself. The katabas escaves could work and make amends in accordance with their masters. F. Zakat was used to systematically free the slaves. Indeed, the Qur'an reserving a share of the zakat to systematically free the slaves.

2.8 The hypothesis of the origin of Muhammad Levites, the genetic approach.

As noted above, the ancestors of Muhammad Quraysh were semi-nomadic seasonally traveling between Syria and Yemen are being installed in the Meccan valley a few centuries earlier. The Quraysh is traditionally regarded as descendants of Ishmael. Montogommery Watt described the same ethnographic situation Yathrib whose mother of the Prophet, Amina, is derived. "The distinction between the Arabs of that earlier stratum and Jews is confused. The Arabs were less powerful than the Jews - digitally thirteen Arab strongholds (Atam) against Jews, fifty-nine bastions - and conversed with them in the relations of Jiwar or hilf, that is to say, they were their protégés, either as "neighbors" or as confederates. They probably crossed contracted marriages, and it is assumed that marriage was uxorilocal. They may have adopted the Jewish religion. As can be expected, then, some clans of Arabs are sometimes identified as Jewish clans; and the As-Samhudi list of Jewish clans includes Marthad B., B. Mu'awiyah, the Jadhma B. 'B. Naghisah the Za'ura B., and B. Tha'labah, although the first of these is actually a part of the Arab tribe of Bali, the second part of Sulaym, the third and fourth of the Arabs of Yemen, and the last two Arabs Ghassan. It is customary to say that the tribes or clans authentic Jews are three in number, the Qurayzah the an-Nadir and Qaynuqa. However, this is a simplification. Have Samhudi gives a list of about a dozen clans in addition to those already mentioned as being clearly of Arab extraction. The most important was the Banu Hadl, closely associated with Banu Qurayzah ... There was no clan counting Jew not in his ranks. "[9]

According to the theory of coalescence, after nearly a thousand years of Yathrib iraélite Arab exogamous marriages, Muhammad must have origins Levites by his mother hails from Yathrib.

History records that the Jews of Yathrib were Levites cohanites who flee the Holy Land during export forced to Babylon, Nebuchadnezzar II time. [10] The Arab tribes of Yathrib having also settled in the area around about the same time, marriages between Arabs and Levites for nearly a millennium had genetically linked Arab tribes and islarélites high fashion. Muhammad's mother is a native of Yathrib, according to the theory of coalescence, Muhammad had obviously origins Levites by his mother.

3.1 The Quran and verses related to war.

The Koran contains thirty passages that allude to the battles which ten led to a pitched battle. Here are a few references to complete 270 verses of the Koran that speak directly or indirectly from war or battle in 25 of the 114 chapters of the Qur'an:

(2 / 84.177, 190-195, 207.214, 216-218,239,244-246; 250, 262, 279)
(3 / 13.111, 121-127, 139-147, 152-160, 165-168, 173-175, 195, 200)
(4 / 66-68,71-78, 84, 90-91, 94-95, 101-104, 141)
(5 / 2-3; 24, 35, 54, 64)
(8 / 1.4 -19, 30, 39-40, 42-52, 57-58, 60-61, 65, 67-69, 71-72, 74)

(9 / 5-6,12-16, 20-22, 24-27, 29, 36-53, 56-57, 62, 65-66, 73, 81-92, 94-96, 102-107, 111 , 117-118, 120-123) 94-96,102-107, 111, 117-118, 120-123)

(15/94)
(16 / 81.112 to 113, 125)
(21/80)
(22/39 to 40.60, 78)
(24 / 53,61)
(25/52)
(27/33)
(28 / 35)
(29 / 6.10 to 11, 46, 69)
(33 / 9-27)
(42/16)
(47 / 4.7, 20-21, 31, 35)
(48 / 4.7, 11 -12, 15-17, 22, 29)
(49 / 9,12, 15)
(57 / 7-11)
(59 / 1-7,11-12, 14)
(60 / 8-10)
(61 / 4.10 to 14)
(66/9)

Secular reading of the Koran can lead to the question of why the Qur'an speaks as much of war, but by looking at the matter more closely, we can highlight that there are thirty passages from the Koran and around 270 verses that allude directly or indirectly to the war, among around 6,250 verses, through 600 pages (≈4,32%). But knowing that Muhammad fought battles in response to incessant diplomatic aggressions explains these verses in historic fashion. As noted above, the sources available there is not a single battle biographers attribute a desire for conquest which had not been diplomatically caused by the opposing camp of Muhammad. Therefore, the bloodthirsty warrior image and Muhammad does not reflect historical reality. This went on until the time of the Umayyads from 661. It is remarkable that Abyssinia is the closest territory of the emerging territory of Islam after Persia and the Byzantine Empire was never attacked, probably becaufe their relations remained good throughout history. The Koran played an instigator motor to excite the faithful during the confrontations. Thus, if a one-time reading some passages from the Koran seems to incite hatred, indifferent reading and observing the scientific demarcation criteria demonstrate that these are passages exciting the faithful during the confrontation on the battlefield.


3.2 Quran , excitement instrument troops on the battlefield.

1. (Surah 8, verse 39): "And fight them until there is no more association, and religion is for Allah. Then, if they cease (they will be forgiven because) Allah sees what they are working. "

Revealed against Quraïche and Mecca "due to their abuse towards Muslim converts who were forced into exile until Abyssinia," according to Tabari (839-923), as Urwah ibn Zubayr (in) (m. 713). [30] As evidenced, indeed, the preceding and following verses from Kazimirski for example, even for the quote below (Sura 8, verses 59-60). The lowest Muslims remained in Mecca in very difficult conditions because they refused to return to the beliefs of their ancestors, and did not have the means to emigrate. [31] This passage was to excite the faithful during the confrontation with Qoraïche.

2. (Surah 8 verses 59 and 60): "Let the unbelievers do not think they have escaped us. No, they will never prevent us (to catch up at any moment). ";" And prepare [to fight] against them all you can of power including steeds of war, to terrify the enemy of Allah and your, and others you do not know outside them but Allah knows. And whatever you spend in the cause of Allah will be refunded fully and you shall not be wronged. "

Medieval historian Tabari reports that the fact of surarmer was intended to deter the enemy to attack Muslims. Enemies that are mentioned in verse 59 are still the people of Makkah that drove Muslims to flee to Abyssinia and from Yathrib. [32] In regard with the previous verses, see note above, even Surah same context.

3. (Surah 47, verse 4): "When you meet (in fight) those who disbelieve smite at their necks. Then, when you have thoroughly subdued them, bind a bond firmly. Then it is the time for release or ransom, until the war lays down its burdens. This is so because if Allah willed, He would avenge himself against them, but to try some of you by others. And those who are slain in the Way of Allah, He will never let their deeds. "

Tabari reports from Qatada ibn al-Nu'man (in) (m. 742 or 749) that this verse has been revealed to Muhammad at the Battle of Uhud in the Muslim camp, "so that Muslims do not falter and stop being massacred, "it aims to present the opponents at Uhud battle. [31] As noted by Mohammed Arkoun in footnote page of the translation of the Koran Albert Kazimirski of Biberstein for this verse. [33] It is therefore necessary to treat the Qur'an as a book composed over the ups and downs, as the events of the Prophet's life. It is impossible to understand outside the context of contextual events. Thus, these verses removed from their context may suggest an incentive to conquer, while it never tarversé the spirit of Muhammad, who has not undertaken any battle by pure spirit of conquest, without it is induced by different diplomatic. The first lawyer to have legislated mandatory expansionist jihad is al-Shafi'i. Two hadiths mentioned to try to base this doctrine by the words of the Prophet. "Islam is in the shade of swords. "&" I was commanded to fight the polytheists until they testify that there is no god but Allah. "Actually these two words attributed to Muhammad relate well the defense of Islam conttre abusers, not their forced conversion, since the Koran is explicit:" No conversion to Islam by force ". (Qur'an, 2: 256) It is therefore discussed in the spirit of Muhammad, in these two hadiths défrendre Islam, insofar as there are enemies of Islam.

--------------------------------

References: 

 

[1] Alphonse de Lamartine, the life of Muhammad, Volume I, p .53. (1854).

 

[2] Psalm 84.

 

[3] "For this Hagar is Mount Sinai in Arabia" (Galatians 4:25)

[4] Francis Edwards Peters, Hajj: the Muslim pilgrimage to Mecca and the holy places (Reprint, illustrated ed.). Princeton University Press (1994). p. 47. ISBN 0-691-02619-X.

[5] Bukhari, Sahih al-Jami ', Book 26: 653. [6] abu' l-Walid al Azqrakî, Akhbar Makka, 31, 58, 73.

[7] An article by Thomas Maria Weber in The Archéo Tema No. 9 (review), July-August 2010, page 51. Archeodenum SAS. (ISSN 1969 - 1815).

[8] Procopius, Stories and Speeches Wars.

 

[9] Montgomery Watt, Muhammad at Macca, 208 pages, Oxford University Press, OUP Pakistan (1953, 2006). (ISBN 0195772784 and 978-0195772784), pp.193-194.

[10] Henri Graetz, Jewish history, translation by Lazarus Wogue Moses Bloch. Five volumes A. Levy, 1882. THIRD PERIOD - THE RELEASE First time - after the fall Recollection Chapter XII - Jews in Arabia - (up to 650) [11] B. Sadeghi & U. Bergmann, "The Codex Of A Companion Of The Prophet And The Qur'ān Of The Prophet ", Arabica, 2010, Volume 57, pp. 344-347.

[12] Thomas the presbyopic Chronicles.

 

[13] Robert G. Hoyland; A Survey and Evaluation of Christian, Jewish and Zoroastrian Writings on Early Islam; 1997. p.116 

 

[14] Jacobi Nuper Baptizati. 

 

[15] Pratum spirituale, 100-102 [p. 63]

 

[16] B. Flusin, "The Temple Mount to the arrival of the Arabs, according to two byzanitins stories," in: Bayt Al-Maqdis: Abd al-Malik's Jerusalem, J. and J. Raby Johns (ed.) (Oxford Studies in Islamic Art), Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1992, p. 21.

 

[17] (Chron. Khuzistan, 30-31 [p. 186])

 

[18] (Chron. Khuzistan 38-39 [pp. 187-188]) 

 

[19] Damascus John wrote his "Hairesi peri" in AD 743 or earlier.

 

[20] Theophanes.

 

[21] Maxime Rodinson, Muhammad, Essays, Seuil, 1994, p. 73-122.

 

[22] Roger Bertram Serjeant: "The Sunnah Jami'ah, Yathrib pacts with the Jews, and the Tahrim of Yathrib: Analysis and translation of the material comprised in the so-called" Constitution of Medina. " ", (1978). The historian demonstrates the authenticity of this treaty by a historical-critical approach.

 

[23] BM Wheeler, Moses Or Alexander? Early Islamic Exegesis Of Qur'an 18: 60-65, Journal Of Near Eastern Studies, 1998, op cit., P. 214.

 

[24] Maxime Rodinson, Muhammad, Essays, Seuil, 1994, p. 179 and acc.

 

[25] Muhammad Hamidullah, The battlefields in the time of the Prophet, published in 1939.

 

[26] François-Paul Blanc, Muslim law, Dalloz, 2 ^e edition, 2007, 128 p., P p. 74-76.

 

[27] Maria Theresa Urvoy, Article War and Peace in MA Amir-Moezzi, Dictionary of the Qur'an, ed. Robert Laffont, 2007, p. 375. 

 

[28] Maxime Rodinson, Muhammad, edition of Threshold, (1994) p.267 

 

[29] Ebu Muhammed Cafer b. PIRC and-Taberi, Taberi Tefsiri, Hisar editions Yay nevi: 4 / 218-219.

 

[30] Maxime Rodinson, Muhammad, Essays, Seuil, 1994, p. 287-288.

 

[31] Ebu Muhammed Cafer b. PIRC and-Taberi, Taberi Tefsiri, Hisar editions Yayinevi: 4 / 236-237

 

[32] Ebu Muhammed Cafer b. PIRC and-Taberi, Taberi Tefsiri, Hisar Yayinevi editions: 7 / 428-431

 

[33] Kazimirski The Quran; Editions Garnier Flammarion, 1970, 508 pages. (ISBN: 2-08-070237-8). p. 393. Notes: [a] Narrated from Aisha: "Allah's Apostle came to my house while two girls were singing beside me the songs of Bu'ath (a story about the war between .. the two tribes of the Ansar, ie Khazraj and Aus, before Islam the Prophet lying down on his bed with his face turned to the other side abu Bakr came and scolded me and said: 'From instrument of Satan in ? presence of the Apostle of Allah's Apostle then turned his face towards him and said: '.. Let them Every people has its festivals, and this is ours' When Abu Bakr was found dispersed, j 'prayed the two girls to go away and they left. It was the day of Eid when the Abyssinians are accustomed to dancing with leather shields and spears ... "